The concept of organic farming is based on a holistic viewpoint, meaning that nature is perceived to be more than just the separate individual elements into which it may be split. Its principles are found in ecology, a science concerned with the interrelationship of living organisms and then environments. In practical terms, this means that organic farmers obtain their inspiration and learn from natural eco-systems. Farmers try to imitate at farm level basic characteristics of relevant eco-systems, for instance by working towards the maximal use and recycling of on-farm resources (fodder, manure, organic waste, etc.).
Organic farming differs from industrialized agriculture in that in the latter, biological systems are to a larger extent replaced by technical systems. For instance, the diversified rotation of crops, with its biological significance, is often supplanted by monocultural practices giving rise to the need to use pesticides and artificial fertilizers, and organic manure is often exchanged for artificial fertilizers.
The concept of organic farming also covers economic and social aspects of agricultural production, local as well as global.
In organic farming, the aim is to support and strengthen biological processes without recourse to technical remedies such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides and the genetic modification of organisms; hence, the approach to the control of weeds, pests and diseases is primarily preventive.
Organic farming is based on the enhancement of the structure and the fertility of the soil, a balanced choice of crops, and the implementation of diversified crop rotation systems. The number of animals kept on the farm and the available land area are correlated so that farm units can cover their need for feed and soil nutrients from within the system.
Among its key characteristics are the use of organic materials to maintain organic matter and nutrients in the soil (including green manure), nitrogen fixing plants, pest-resistant plant varieties, soil management techniques such as mulching and the use of fallow periods, various cropping systems (including inter-cropping) and agroforestry.
(Agroforestry consists of land-use systems in which woody perennials are grown in association with crops and/or livestock.) Organic farming gives due consideration to animal welfare and the use of manual, mechanical and thermic weeding.
Organic farming merges traditional and respectful views on nature with modern scientific insights. It encompasses several farming methods and approaches. For instance, research carried out by Muller and Rusch in the first half of this century has been adapted and further developed by one of Germany's largest organic farmer's associations. The Soil Association in the United Kingdom has its roots in the work of Albert Howard and Eve Balfour which focuses on soil fertility and health.
Biodynamic agriculture (a contracted translation of the German biologisch-( dynamische Landwirtschaft) is yet another approach; it is based on anthroposophy and the ideas formulated in the 1920s by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner. The maintenance and furtherance of life-processes in the soil, and in nature in general, as well as the harnessing of cosmic energy and other influences from the sun, the stars, the moon and other planets, are basic principles. Biodynamic agriculture advocates the combination of animal husbandry and crop production (mixed farming) and it uses compost and biodynamic preparations (naturally occurring plant, animal and mineral materials which are combined in specific recipes) in order to vitalize the soil and to enable it to transmit this vitality to plants and subsequently to animals and human beings. Sowing, cultivation and harvesting are timed according to cosmic rhythms.
There are other but not organic approaches which represent alternatives to high-external-input production systems, and which are more environmentally friendly but not organic. An example is low-external-input sustainable agriculture (LEISA), which is based on the increased use of local resources. A key factor distinguishing LEISA from organic farming is the use of chemical inputs, which is reduced but not eliminated.
Integrated farming systems combine the use of chemical and biological controls. Among the techniques utilized are integrated pest management (IPM), integrated nutrient management (INM) and integrated weed management (IWM). Integrated farming systems are seen by some as a compromise between organic farming and intensive conventional agriculture.
Standards and Certification
What is important to point out here is that one of the most significant factors distinguishing organic farming from other concepts of sustainable agriculture is the existence of production standards and certification procedures.
Standards have been developed by private associations, entitling members to use the respective associations' organic brands and guarantee labels when marketing their products.
At least 100 regional or national standards have been developed worldwide.
Several countries are formulating or have adopted laws and regulations on organic production and processing and on certification requirements to control the use of labels indicating organic origin.
The certification of organic production methods is an increasingly important aspect of the International trade in organic products. Most regulations require products that are labeled organic to be certified by an independent body, thereby providing a guarantee that the goods have indeed been produced according to organic production standards.
Practical Obstacles
As organic agriculture seems fairly similar to many traditional farming systems in developing countries, conversion from these traditional systems and certification may appear to be an obvious thing to aspire to. However, certification is costly and for subsistence farmers with small marketable surpluses, it may not be economically feasible. Additionally, many small holder production systems cause soil degradation and are not environmentally sustainable. The adoption of organic farming techniques may also be constrained by the lack of knowhow and the absence of training and extension facilities. Furthermore, expertise on local farming conditions is a basic requirement and outsiders, while they may be conversant with the principles of organic farming, may not have this expertise. Research into these conditions is essential to organic farming: for instance, a certain cropping system may be preferable in one area, whereas in another area the threat of a certain pest would dictate a different approach.
Uncertainties about ownership and access to land are real obstacles to conversion. Farmers have to be sure that they will be able to benefit from investing, for example, in improved soil fertility in order to want to make such an investment. Difficult access to credit is another factor often impeding initiatives and the implementation of conversion projects.
Some farmers do have access to financial resources and are more likely to consider conversion. However, they also have to contend with marketing constraints. The market for organic products is still comparatively small and is mainly concentrated in the European Union, the United States and Japan, making access to both market information and the markets themselves difficult. The length of the conversion period, normally two to three years, is also a barrier, as products usually cannot be sold as organic during this period.
© Saudi Commerce and Economic Review 2007
