Recombinant DNA Cloning Process
Recombinant DNA cloning or gene cloning refers to the process by which a fragment of DNA is transferred from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element such as a bacterial plasmid or a virus. Plasmids are self-replicating extra-chromosomal circular DNA molecules, distinct from the normal bacterial genome and can be used to make many copies of the gene. These genetic elements can then be inserted into a cell of interest and the function of the gene of interest studied.
Reproductive Cloning Process
Reproductive cloning refers to the process by which an animal is created which has the same nuclear DNA as a previously existing animal. This is accomplished by the removal of the DNA containing nucleus of an egg and its replacement by the DNA from another cell. The egg is then stimulated to divide and following a number of divisions it can be transferred into the uterus of a suitable female host until its birth.
Reproductive cloning has been around for a number of years, with the tadpole being the first animal to be cloned in 1952. However the advent of Dolly the sheep, the first large mammal to be cloned by Scottish scientists in 1997, led to the belief that one-day humans might be cloned. Cloned animals are not exact twins however as despite sharing copies of the nuclear DNA, another source of DNA the mitochondria are derived from the original egg. This may be of consequence as mitochondrial DNA is believed to play a role in the aging process.
A significant problem of reproductive cloning is its inefficiency, more than 90 percent of cloning attempts fail to produce viable offspring. In addition little is known of the long-term effects of cloning with many cloned animals dying prematurely.
Therapeutic cloning Process
Therapeutic cloning or embryo cloning refers to the production of human embryos for research purposes. The goal of this is not to create cloned babies but to harvest the stem cells of the embryo that have the potential to develop into almost any cell in the body.
This obviously throws up a number of ethical issues. However, researchers believe that these cells can be used to treat diseases such as heart disease and Alzheimer’s.
Finally, cloning is complicated process and the diagram that is given below shows the process of cloning in animal. This diagram is taken from the site http://www.sciencecases.org/dog_cloning/cloning.gif.
The Opinion of the Legality of Cloning Involve Islam View
Islam opined that God’s immutable laws are dominant in the nature and human beings cannot willfully create unless God, the Lord of all Beings, wills. The will of God in the Qur’an has often been interpreted as the “processes of nature and does not intervene with human action.” As a result, in the Islamic perspectives, human manipulation of genes by biological intervention in the early stages of life for the purpose of improving the chances of fertility for a married couple is regarded as an act of faith in the ultimate will of God as the Giver of all life.
Let us move on to the ethical dimension of Islam. What Islam concerns most is that cloning may affect inter-human relationships. Paul Rasmey voiced the social role of parenting and nurturing interpersonal relations. Islam regards interpersonal relationships as fundamental human religious life. In fact, the Prophet (PBUH) said that nine-tenth of religion constitutes inter-human relationship, whereas only one-tenth if God-human.
There are some opinions of Muslims and Islamic schools that regard to the legality of cloning.
Cloning is permissible in case of plants as well as in case of animals except human beings. The extension of cloning to human beings would create extremely complex and intractable social and moral problems. Therefore cloning of human beings cannot be permitted.
There also another view which human cloning. The following point summarized their opinion.
First, God is the Creator not humans. So we have no right to interfere with God’s plan.
Second, loss of kinship because the clone does not really have an identifiable mother or father.
Third, cloning harmful to society nature because it may grave consequences if this ability was to create superior beings.
Fourth, cloning may cause disruption in nature, due to possibilities of overpopulation and famine.
Fifth, cloning is a way of reproduction that is contrary to what God has given humans
Sixth, Cloning is a form of creation that is created from materials we have, rather than from nothing which is Gods ability only.
Seventh, Islam encourages research and investigation.
The last point is cloning technology can be used for good purposes and it can cure for diseases and conditions.
Overview of national legislation
The following is an overview of existing national legislation, official guidelines and opinions as well as draft legislation currently under discussion which regulate the cloning techniques using human genetic materials.
In late February 2003, the US House of Representatives passed a bill that would ban human cloning for reproductive and therapeutic purposes. It would make it unlawful for anyone “to perform or attempt to perform human cloning; to participate in an attempt to perform human cloning; or to ship or receive for any purpose an embryo produced by human cloning or any product derived from such embryo.”10 The bill would impose a prison sentence of up to 10 years for violators and fines beginning at $1 million.
The proposed legislation, strongly supported by the Bush Administration, has been sent to the US Senate and calendared for vote. It mirrors a previous bill passed by the House last summer but which failed to reach a vote in the Senate due to sharp disagreement, even within the parties, over the prohibition of therapeutic cloning. The new Senate majority leader, a Republican physician long opposed to the cloning of human embryos, is expected to push hard for passage of a complete ban on all forms of human cloning.
Eight states have passed laws explicitly prohibiting human reproductive cloning, five of which prohibit human cloning for any reason. At least 22 others have introduced bills that would outlaw the reproductive cloning of human beings.
On other hand, Arabic legislators strongly rejected human cloning. And there are three examples of Arabic laws. First, Egyptian legislator draft a law addressing human reproductive cloning practices is currently under consideration. In conformity with a report produced by Islamic Research Academy, Egyptian authorities have issued an opinion strictly prohibiting experimental research on human reproductive cloning and allowing research into cloning of human tissues and cells for therapeutic purposes, as long as human rights and dignity are respected.
Second, according to the request of the Minister of Health, the National Medical Ethics Committee in Tunisia examined the issue of cloning in 1997. Following initial discussions, the Technical Section of the Committee concluded that any technology of human cloning should be banned. It deemed the practice as undermining the field of human reproduction and the dignity of the human species, and an open door to all forms of abuse.
Third, the Qatari law prohibits all forms of human cloning. Qatar is one member of Legal Committee Recommends Declaration on Human Cloning to General Assembly that prohibits the human cloning.
Moreover, this organization concluded its work for the fifty-ninth session, the Sixth Committee (Legal) recommended to the General Assembly the adoption of a declaration on human cloning by which Member States would be called on to prohibit all forms of human cloning inasmuch as they are incompatible with human dignity and the protection of human life.
However, Qatar has not yet issued a law that governs this matter which raises the following question if one of doctors does this action, will this doctor be punished or not? And if he is punished, according to which law? This is a big issue that we have to consider about because the legal personality it must be modified.
According to the treatment that Qatar concluded, I think that the judges can apply the rules of treatment. Because as we know the international treatment has the same power of law, so in case of absents law, the judges can apply the rules of treatment. According to Qatari Constitution law article (68):
“The Emir shall conclude treaties and agreements by a decree and refer them to Al-Shoura Council accompanied with appropriate explanatory notes. The treaty or agreement shall have the power of law after ratification and publication in the official Gazette; however, reconciliation treaties and treaties pertaining to the territory of the State or those relating to the right of sovereignty or public or private rights of the citizens, or those that involve an amendment of the laws of the State shall come into force when the same are issued as a law. Under no case may a treaty include secret conditions contradicting its publicized conditions”.
Conclusion
In conclusion, cloning is a new field that needs more research and works and experiments to reach the complete levels. I see that cloning is will be useful techniques if it use in agriculture field because it will help a lot to produce more plants, however; using this techniques in human field will contradict with many aspects, such as; religions, laws and ethics. Finally this topic is to large which needs more works in it and this research covered the most important and general issues.
In sum, 23 countries have adopted legislation which explicitly prohibits human reproductive cloning and seven other countries have interpreted their existing legislation as implicitly prohibiting human reproductive cloning. Three countries introduced a provisional moratorium for a limited period of time. Six other countries have furnished official guidelines or reports expressing official positions against reproductive cloning. 10 countries are currently drafting legislation for the same objective.
As to therapeutic cloning, two main categories of regulations of the creation of embryos for research purposes have emerged, either as implicitly or explicitly prohibiting or granting permission to perform therapeutic cloning. Five countries have adopted legislation which may allow for the creation of embryos for research purposes under strict conditions, possibly opening the way to creating an embryo by nuclear transfer. Four countries have published official guidelines or reports which support the possibility of therapeutic cloning research.
By Mariam Omar Fadul
© The Peninsula 2009
